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Cascade Valorisation of Lemon-Processing Residues (Part I): Current Trends in Green Extraction Technologies and High-Value Bioactive Recovery

Abstract:

The global citrus-processing industry generates 15–32 million tonnes of waste annually. Lemon-processing residues—peels, seeds, and pomace—constitute 45–55% of fruit mass and harbour high-value bioactive compounds amenable to cascade valorisation. This review (Part I of a two-part series) examines green extraction technologies for recovering bioactive compounds from lemon waste streams. Following bibliometric analysis of 847 publications (2003–2025), this work delineates the compositional heterogeneity of lemon fractions and establishes a hierarchical framework for value-added products encompassing essential oils, pectin, polyphenols, seed oils, citric acid, industrial enzymes, α-cellulose, and nanocrystalline cellulose. Four sustainable extraction methodologies are systematically evaluated: ultrasound-assisted extraction, microwave-assisted extraction, supercritical CO<inf>2</inf> extraction, and enzyme-assisted extraction. Comparative assessment demonstrates yield improvements of 16–112% over conventional approaches, processing-time reductions of 89–98%, and energy savings up to 95%. Critical research gaps include fragmented single-product valorisation, insufficient techno-economic assessment, and limited industrial-scale validation. Integrated cascade biorefineries employing sequential green extraction protocols offer economically viable pathways for transforming lemon waste into diversified revenue streams. Industrial implementation, circular-economy integration, and techno-economic feasibility are addressed in Part II.